This investigation aims to strengthen research on the unique and combined effects of exposure to child abuse and domestic violence on psychosocial outcomes in adolescence. For example, some studies have found that children doubly exposed to abuse and domestic violence have worse outcomes than others ( Hughes et al., 1989 Sternberg, 2006), whereas others find no elevated effect of dual exposure ( Sternberg et al., 1993). Studies investigating dual exposure have produced mixed results, suggesting the need for further investigation. Researchers have posited what they call a “double whammy” or dual exposure effect, in which children exposed to both child abuse and domestic violence fare worse with respect to later outcomes than do those exposed only to one form of violence ( Herrenkohl et al., 2008 Hughes, Parkinson, & Vargo, 1989).
Herrenkohl, & Moylan, 2008 Sternberg, 2006 Wolfe, Crooks, Lee, McIntyre-Smith, & Jaffe, 2003). Numerous studies have demonstrated that children exposed to domestic violence and/or child abuse are more likely to experience a wide range of adverse psychosocial and behavioral outcomes ( T. Furthermore, different forms of family violence often co-occur, suggesting that many children who witness domestic violence have also directly experienced child abuse ( Appel & Holden, 1998 Edleson, 2001 Tajima, 2004). Studies investigating the prevalence of child abuse find that almost 900,000 children are classified as maltreated by parents and other caretakers ( United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2006). Analyses showed that the effects of exposure for boys and girls are statistically comparable.Įvery year an estimated 3.3 million to 10 million children are exposed to domestic violence in their home ( Carlson, 1984 Straus, 1992). However, while there were some observable differences in the prediction of outcomes for children with dual exposure compared to those with single exposure (i.e., abuse only or exposure to domestic violence only), these difference were not statistically significant. When accounting for risk factors associated with additional stressors in the family and surrounding environment, only those children with dual exposure had an elevated risk of the tested outcomes compared to non-exposed youth.
Results show that child abuse, domestic violence, and both in combination (i.e., dual exposure) increase a child’s risk for internalizing and externalizing outcomes in adolescence. Data for this analysis are from the Lehigh Longitudinal Study, a prospective study of 457 youth addressing outcomes of family violence and resilience in individuals and families. This study examines the effects of child abuse and domestic violence exposure in childhood on adolescent internalizing and externalizing behaviors.